Those of the O’Neills were opposed in Ulaidh not only by Mac Guinness, but by the O’Neills of the Clann Aodha Buidhe, who fought their kinsmen as fiercely as ever did any of the clans of Ulaidh.

The O’Donnells were at the same time engaged in asserting their traditional rights in  Cairbre and ” Lower Connacht”140) against O’Connor Sligo.   

In one of the battles in this contest they lost for a time the famous ” Cathach “  : in the capture of Sliao Castle they employed cannon sent to them by a French knight who had visited St. Patrick’s Purgatory in Lough Derg (1516).
But the fiercest rivalry was that between the O’Donnells and the O’Neills themselves. However anxious either might be to enforce its supremacy over its other neighbours, it had always to reckon with its great rival.

The old struggle between the two branches of the northern Ui Neill became intensified as each one tried to make itself supreme in the north. Occasionally during this period the enmity was put aside, and the two great clans combined. But the union was never lasting. In 1514 a peace was made by which the O’Neills formally recognised the supremacy of the Cineal Chonaill over Inishowen and Fermanagh.

But two years after they were again at war. Conn ” Bacach” O’Neill had gathered a host of allies—the chiefs of Oirghialla and Ulaidh, and clans from Connacht and Thomond—while Aodh Dubh O’Donnell depended upon his kins¬men of the Cineal Chonaill alone. At Knockavoe, near Stabane, O’Neill and his allies were utterly defeated in the bloodiest battle that had ever taken place between the Cineal Chonaill and the Cineal Eoghain (1522). O’Neill’s Connacht allies, who had laid siege to Sligo Castle, then in the possession of O’Donnell, fled in panic when they heard the news.

 For at least ten years after this O’Donnell exacted tribute from the chiefs of all North or “Lower ” Connacht.

In the south the most important event of the period was the attempt of Tadhg O’Brien to revive the claims of his family over Leath Mhogha {page 73). With the largest army led by an O’Brien since Clontarf he crossed the Shannon, and levied tribute from Limerick. The Lord Deputy, the Earl of Desmond, was forced to acknowledge his rights over most of the old territory of Thomond which lay south of the Shannon. The chief of Osraidhe and some of the Leinster chiefs accepted his ” tuarasdail.”

But his career was suddenly ended by fever (1466).
Battle of Knoekdow.—Forty years later another O’Brien found him-selfin opposition to another Lord Deputy. The affair originated in Connacht, which, since the partition of the O’Connors (page 178), was without an overlord. In a quarrel between O’Kelly of Ui Maine ^d Burke of Uanrickarde (Mac William Uachtar), O’Kelly was supported by the lords of the Pale- Turlough O’Brien, ldnh:the; Chiefs supported Burke, so that the contest was to a great extent the old one between Leath Chuinn and Leath Mhogha.
In a battle at Knochdow (near Gal way)—the most destructive battle since the invasion with the exception of that at Athenry—the southerns were utterly defeated after an obstinate fight (1504).
Six years later, however, O’Brien and Clanrickarde defeated Kildare at Monabraher, near Limerick, the Deputy’s allies on that occasion being the Irish and Normans of Desmond.

In most cases there was not even the control of a superior great lord. Desmond, Ormonde and Kildare might, to some extent, act as petty Kings ; O’Neill and O’Donnell, O’Brien and Mac Carthy might control their own immediate sub-chiefs ; but the general tendency was in favour of purely local independence.

 As the lords had thrown off the dominion of the King, so the clans had lost much of the old tradition of acknowledged supremacy. The Kings of Aileach, of Tara, of Laighin, and of Caiseal still succeed one another, but their power is only nominal.

Desultory events Of a country so circumstanced there can be httle continuous history.   Most of the incidents are petty and local;the few important events are of a varied nature.

The quarrels, dissensions, and ambitions of clans, the rivalries of lords, the spasmodic malevolence of the Crown officials, the desperate efforts of the Pale to save itself from annihilation, form a strange medley to which the echo of English political strife constantly adds a discordant note.

Neithei did they, apparently, affect the general community, but were carried on by the bands of professional fighting men. But, apart from the bloodshed, they must have been a baneful influence making for disorder and demoralisation.

One fact which shows that these constant faction fights were carried on, to a great extent, apart from the ordinary life of the country, is the evidence of the active trade and commerce that prevailed through the island. In all the Irish territories great fairs were periodically held, and were attended by Irish and foreign traders.

 So well attended were those fairs that the townspeople of the Pale complained of the injury they suffered because English and other traders deserted their own markets in favour of them. The records of European ports also show that Ireland carried on a great foreign trade at this time with towns from the Mediterranean to the Baltic.

And this foreign trade was carried on independently of the Crown. The northern ports were controlled by O’Neill and O’Donnell; the western by O’Connor, Burke, and O’Brien; the southern by Desmond, Mac Carthy, O’Driscoll and O’Sullivan; the south-eastern by Ormonde.

Under the protection of those chiefs the foreign trade was carried on, and to them, and not to the Crown, were paid the dues and profits arising out of it.

The authority of the Crown was more than once defied by its own representatives, and their example was followed by others. When Lord Grey was sent over by the King to supersede the Earl of Kildare as Lord Deputy (1478) he was refused admission to Dublin Castle by its Constable, Sir James Keating, who garrisoned the Castle, and held it for two years. Keating was also Prior of Kilmainham, an important military ” hospital” of the Knights of St. John beside Dublin.

When deprived of this rank in 1482 he imprisoned his successor, and kept possession of the ” hospital.” Although the King excepted Keating from the general pardon to the adherents of Simnel (1488) , yet the intractable Prior held defiant possession of the ” hospital ” for another three years.
Anti-Irish Decrees.—Reduced to this condition of impotence, the Crown officials could only display a futile malevolence by further anti-Irish enactments.

Some of these declarations against the adoption of Irish customs border on the ridiculous. In 1447 it was enacted that ” every man must keep his upper lip shaved or else be treated as an Irish enemy  ” In 1465 it was ordered that every Irishman living in the Pale was to dress and shave like an Englishman, and take an English name, such as the name of a town, colour, or calling. Poynings’ Parliament  in 1495 repeated the prohibitions of the ” Statute of Kilkenny ” with the conspicuous exception of that against the Irish language.

So general was Irish now, that no attempt could be made to prohibit it. In 1498 further enactments were passed against Irish dress and the Irish custom of riding without saddles. More important than the enactments against the adoption of Irish customs in the Pale were those attempting to cut off all intercourse between the colonists and the Irish. In 1432 it was made felony to trade with the native Irish, and any Irishman trading with the King’s lieges was to be treated as the King’s enemy.

In 1465 it was declared that any Irishman found in the Pale not in the company ” of a faithful man in English apparel ” might be killed and the slayer rewarded. In the same year ships were prohibited from fishing in Irish waters, because the dues thereof enriched the Irish. In 1480 all intercourse between the two peoples was again prohibited.

In 1416, they petitioned the King to pity his ” poor lieges who are environed on all sideswith English rebels and Irish enemies.” Four years later they begged him to obtain the aid of the Pope on their behalf.

While the farmers were spoiled by ” coyne and livery ” the townspeople were impoverished by the anti-Irish enactments which • prohibited them from trading with the Irish. Many fled to England ; others affiliated themselves to neighbouring chiefs and lords. In 1422, Dunlavin, Trim, Collon and Dundalk indicate the borders of the Pale.

Forty years later a dyke was built between Tallaght and Saggart, and at other places, to keep out the enemy. In 1515 a report to the English Government states that the English rule extended only over one-half f the five counties of Oriel, Meath, Dublin, Kildare, and Wexford, and even in those the greater part of the population was native Irish.

The rest of the country was ruled by ” Irish enemies ” and ” degenerate English.” In 533 a report of Archbishop Allen says that the Pale, where alone English language, dress and customs were used, was only twenty miles long.
Black Rents - Nor was it by any strength of its own that this ” little place ” was enabled to exist. Its military establishment consisted of only eighty archers and forty ” spears ” until the voluntary ” Brotherhood of St. George ” increased it by 200 men.

It existed only by the sufferance of the neighbouring chiefs, which was purchased by the annual subsidies called ” black rents.” This tribute was paid by every county of the Pale (except Dublin), and even by the great walled towns. Louth paid it to O’Neill, Meath and Kildare to O’Connor of Ui Failghe.

Amongst the towns, it was levied on Wexford by Mac Murrough, on Dundalk by O’Neill, on Cork by Mac Carthy, and on Limerick by O’Brien. The Government in Dublin paid Mac Murrough an annual stipend to secure the roads to the south.

Content with these annual tributes [which bear a striking resemblance to those paid to the over-Kings of old the chiefs who lay around the Pale suffered it to continue, and ignored the possibilities that lurked within its dilapidated borders.

The latter measure was ratified by the Irish Parliament, and when Sir John Butler claimed the Ormonde estates, he was opposed by Thomas, 8th Earl of Desmond. A fierce battle took place at Piltown (Co. Kilkenny), in which the Butlers were defeated (1462).

Edmond Butler, who had taken the name of Mac Riocaird, was made prisoner, and was ransomed by the transfer of two Irish books . Sir John Butler held out for some years, although his castles at Kilkenny and elsewhere were captured. Upon the accession of Henry VII the lands of the Ormondes were restored, but the Earls of Ormonde continued for a long time to reside in England, and the Butlers were led in Ireland by other members of the family.

Thomas, Earl of Desmond, the victor of Piltown, was next year appointed Lord Deputy (1463). He enjoyed at once the confidence of all sections amongst the Irish and Anglo-Irish and the favour of the King. The latter conferred much power upon him, and he became so influential that he is called the “Great Earl of Desmond.”

 He was a man of much learning and many accomplishments, and a great patron of Gaelic poets and scholars. He founded a college at Youghal, and endeavoured to create a University at Drogheda, but this was prevented by his death. The new officials established by the Talbots had been opposed to Desmond as previously to Ormonde, and had endeavoured, without success, to undermine his influence with the King. While he was clouded by his defeats at the hands of O’Connor and O’Brien he used some imprudent language regarding the Queen, and this was utilised by his enemies.

Through the influence of the angry Queen, Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, was appointed Deputy in his place, and he and the Earl of Kildare were charged at a Parliament in Drogheda with alliances and fosterage with the Irish. Desmond came to Drogheda, and was immediately seized by Tiptoft and executed (1467).

Kildare went to England and extenuated himself, whereupon he returned, and with Desmond’s sons, ravaged the Pale with fire and sword. He was bought off, appointed Chancellor, and next superseded Tiptoft as Deputy. From that time all official power was almost continuously in the hands of the Kildare family for 65 years (1468-1533).

He was the grandson of Roger Mortimer, Earl of March {page 170), and, therefore, descended from Lionel, Duke of Clarence. His policy was to win over the Irish chiefs, and to placate the Irish Normans. He gained the adhesion of both branches of the Geraldines, but although he bestowed offices upon Ormonde, the Butlers remained steadfast adherents of the Lancastrians.

A new element was introduced by English politics into the ancient rivalry. During the Wars of the Roses (1455-85) many of the Anglo-Irish fought on both sides in the numerous battles in England. The Butlers were almost the only supporters of the House of Lancaster in Ireland, and when the Yorkists were for a time defeated, and the Duke of York fled to Ireland (of which he still claimed to be Lord Lieutenant) he was warmly received and supported (1459).

During the second visit of the Duke of York, a striking declaration was made by the colony in Ireland. Richard had been declared a traitor by the Lancastrians, and an emissary of Ormonde was sent over with a writ for his arrest. But Richard summoned a Parliament at Dublin which declared that the ” Irish ” Parliament was independent of that of England, and that no English writ could be enforced in Ireland. Under this enactment the unfortunate emissary was hanged.

Grey called a Parliament in Trim, but Kildare and the Chancellor (his father-in-law, Fitz-Eustace, Lord Portlester) immediately called a rival Parliament at Naas. During two years the contest went on until finally Kildare won, and was appointed Lord Deputy with increased powers, which left him practically independent. For the next 35 years (1478-1513) the Great Earl was the most powerful man in Ireland, and with the exception of one break of four years (1492-6) he was all that time Lord Deputy under the Yorkist Kings, Edward IV and Richard III, until 1485, and then under the Tudor King, Henry VII.

In 1485 the House of York fell at the battle of Bosworth, and Henry Tudor became King of England as Henry VII. The Wars of the Roses had ended, and new conditions prevailed jti England which were to have a profound influence on Irish affairs. The wars had destroyed the old feudal nobility of England, and for many years to come that country was to be ruled by sovereigns whose power was arbitrary. Untroubled by powerful nobles, the Tudors were able to direct the policy of England with a single mind. 

  To their despotism in England, the condition of Ireland was a sharp contrast. There the clan and feudal nobility were powerful, independent, and assertive, with a princely nobleman at their head, who, although invested with the authority of the King, was a subject only in name.

But they, and nearly all the Anglo-Irish, were still Yorkist, and they soon had an opportunity of displaying their sympathies. The last male representative of the House of York, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, a boy of twelve, was a prisoner in the Tower of London. Some Yorkist adherents got a youth named Lambert Simnel to personate him, and brought him to Ireland, where he was received with open arms by the leading officials. Kildare held aloof for some time, but when Warwick’s aunt, the Duchess of Burgundy, sent an army of Germans to support the pretender, the Earl declared in his favour. Simnel was crowned in Christ Church as Edward VI, and was accepted by many of the Anglo-Irish and by many towns, but not by the Butlers or the city of Waterford. At the head of an army of Germans and Anglo-Irish Simnel landed in England, but was defeated and captured at Stoke (H87)-Even this did not disturb Kildare’s position.

Next year Henry sent a Commissioner to take the homage of those who had sided with the Pretender, and to lay down the conditions upon which they would be pardoned. Kildare kept out of the Commissioner’s way for some time, and when he and the Council heard the conditions, they declared that sooner than accept them they woidd one and all “become Irish.” At length the conditions were withdrawn, and Kildare and the other officials were pardoned and retained in office upon taking an oath of allegiance to Henry.

 Another impostor named Warbeck afterwards landed in the south of Ireland, but received little support except from the Earl of Desmond.

*Tir na n-Og, Magh Mell, Ui Breasail. f The northern half 0/ County Anttim.

    A period of no less than twenty-three years elapsed before St. Patrick returned to Ireland as its Apostle. Some even say that the interval extended over forty years. Of his life during that time, in an empire which was breaking up under the blows of Teuton and Celt, we know little. But most of it was spent in preparing for the great project which he had formed of carrying the light of Christianity to the island of his captivity. He maintained the knowledge of its language and customs which he had acquired in slavery. He prepared himself for his mission by earnest study first under St. Martin of Tours, then under St. Germanus of Auxerre, who ordained him priest, and afterwards at a famous monastery on the small island of Lerin in the Mediterranean. When news came of the death of Palladius, he was consecrated bishop, and with the apostolic blessing of Pope Celestine (who is said to have given him his name of Patrick or Palricius), he proceeded on his great mission for the conversion of Ireland, a.d. 432.

    Reaching the shores of Ireland, Patrick coasted northwards, touching first at the mouth of the river Vartry and next at Holmpatrick, near Skerries. Then sailing into Loch Cuan (Strangford Lough), he landed on the coast oiDal-araidhe* or Southern Ulaidh. Here he celebrated his first Mass in Ireland in a barn at Saul (SadaU, a barn), and converted Dichu, the chief of the district. An attempt to persuade his old master, Milchu, was, however, unsuccessful, the determined pagan chief destroying himself rather than be convinced by his former slave.

    Acting upon a policy which he pursued through­out his mission, Patrick now determined to carry his gospel to the greatest centre of authority in the island. This was Tara, where Laoghaire, the son of the great Niall, was now King. Sailing back along the coast, the apostle entered the mouth of the Boyne, and proceeded alon^ the bank of that river until he came to Slane. Here on the northern bank rises a hill high enough to command the level country around. It was a spot surrounded by the great sites cf Pagan tradition. A few miles down the valley was Brugh na Bourne, the dwelling place of the gods and the burial place of the Kings : inland was Taillte, where the festival instituted by the demi-god Lugh was still celebrated : beyond the river the plains of Meath rolled gently up to a smooth hill, which was Tara. On the summit of the Hill of Slane, St. Patrick boldly lighted the paschal fire on the evening of Easter Saturday, 433, and the challenge of Christianity blazed out over the country.

* The modern County Down and part of Antrim.

    Upon that very evening, Laoghaire, the Ard Rf, was preparing for a great festival at Tara—probably the celebration of his own birth­day. It was to be celebrated with many pagan rites, one of which was the kindling of a great fire by the hands of the King. Any other fire was unlawful until the fire of Tara shone forth. Great, therefore, was the indignation of the King, his druids, and courtiers when from the hill across the Boyne arose the flames of Patrick’s fire. Laoghaire commanded the culprit to be brought before him, with the result that a meeting was arranged for the next day. On Easter Sunday, therefore, St. Patrick and his attendants crossed to Tara, and there expounded the doctrines of Christianity to the assembled court. Many were converted, amongst them some druids and relatives of the King. Laoghaire himself remained pagan, but was so much impressed as to allow Patrick to continue his mission unmolested.

    The apostle now proceeded on a systematic progress through the length and breadth of Ireland. In its course he pursued that settled policy which had brought him to the seat of the Ard Ri at Tara. In every district that he entered he first approached the chief seat of authority, and having converted the Kings and chiefs, he found little difficulty in persuading the people to follow their example. Accordingly we find him visiting the seats of the Kings of the seven Kingdoms which had now been permanently established.

    During his labours in Meath he visited the great festival at Taillte, and there converted large numbers. Here, as well as at Tara, he probably won over many from all parts of the country, who afterwards assisted him in his mission in their own territories.

Having spent three years in the territories of Meath, Patrick now pro­ceeded West. On his way he destroyed the idol of Crom Cruach at Magh Sleacht. Crossing the upper Shannon, he visited Cruachan, where he converted, amongst others, the two daughters of the King. Thence he travelled to the northern coast of the province, where he converted the descendants of Fiachra. Seven years he spent amongst the tribes of Connacht. It was during this time that he retired for penance and prayer for an entire Lent to the summit of the mountain now known as CjmiaC •pA’OttAis (Croagh Patrick).

    His work amongst the clans of the West accomplished, Patrick now turned to the Kingdoms of the North. Travelling along the coast, he made his way to Aileach, where he converted the Kings of the Northern Ui Neill, and the clans over whom they ruled. Next he visited the Oirghialla, and at Clogher consecrated a bishop to minister to them. Proceeding eastwards, he again entered Ulaidh, whose Kings at that time had their chief seat near the present Downpatrick, not far from Saul, the scene of his first Mass.

Having preached the Gospel to the clans of all the Kingdoms of heath Chuinn, the apostle returned to Tara.

    Patrick had now planted the seed throughout the Kingdoms ruled by the posterity of Conn and in the Kingdom still ruled by the Clanna Rury. The Kingdoms of Cahir M6r and of Eoghan in the South yet remained.

    Across the plains of the Liffey, Patrick came to Naas, then the chief seat of the northern branch of the descendants of Cahir M6r. Next he visited the southern branch in their district of Ui Cinnsealaigh, and the tribes of Laoighis. Lying between the two Kingdoms lay Ossraidhe, and there the saint made many converts.

    Next he approached Caiseal, the recently established seat of the Kings of the clans of Munster. Aongus, afterwards King of Caiseal, was converted and became the warm adherent of Christianity. In Munster, as in Connacht, Patrick spent seven years, visiting all the territories south of the Shannon.

    On many occasions Patrick’s life had been in danger, and another attack was made upon him when returning from Munster. This time the saint was saved only by the self-sacrifice of his chariotier, Odran, who fell, the only martyr in the conversion of Ireland.

    Patrick had now preached to all the clans of Eire. In all parts of the country, churches had been founded and priests ordained ; numerous bishops had already been consecrated. It was now desirable to complete the work by the creation of a See which would be the head of the Christian Church in Ireland. As a site for this Metropolitan See, which was to be ruled by himself and his successors, St. Patrick erected the church of Armagh, a.d. 455.

    Armagh was situated close to Eamhain Macha, the ancient palact of the Clanna Rury. Although now in the possession of thft Oirghialla for over a century, it was near the frontiers of Ulaidh, whos« people must still have longed to regain the seat of their great traditions. By devoting the district to the purposes of the Church, St. Patrick removed a cause of jealousy, and established his Primatial See in what was practically neutral territory.

    Having laboured on his mission for thirty-three years, St. Patrick died at Saul on the 17th of March, a.d. 465,* and was buried at Downpatrick.

⁵ Some say not till A.D. 493.