During this period, then, English influence was at its lowest ebb.The country was independent, and the nation was unified in culture ; but the one had no centre, and the other no head— there was no national focus.

The conditions were remarkably like those after Clontarf or like those of the Italian States down to recent times. Certain definite groupings there were. O’Neill and O’Donnell, O’Brien and Mac Carthy were still the accepted leaders of many subordinate clans.

 Indeed, the continued recognition of the chief family, and of the ruling clan, is striking—in families and clans there were dissensions, but there was very little disloyalty. Those leaders, however, were surrounded by other clans, Gaelic and Norman, over whom they had no traditional claims.